EVENTS OF THIS DAY IN THE PAST 14/7

[edit]

• 756 – An Lushan Rebellion: Emperor Xuanzong flees the capital Chang'an as An Lushan's forces advance toward the city.
• 1223 – Louis VIII becomes King of France upon the death of his father, Philip II of France.
• 1420 – Battle of Vitkov Hill, decisive victory of Chech Hussite forces commanded by Jan Žižka against Crusade army led by Sigismund, Holy Roman Emperor
• 1769 – An expedition led by Gaspar de Portolà establishes a base in California and sets out to find the Port of Monterey (now Monterey, California).
• 1771 – Foundation of the Mission San Antonio de Padua in modern California by the Franciscan friar Junípero Serra.
• 1789 – French Revolution: Citizens of Paris storm the Bastille.
• 1789 – Alexander Mackenzie finally completes his journey to the mouth of the great river he hoped would take him to the Pacific, but which turns out to flow into the Arctic Ocean. Later named after him, the Mackenzie is the second-longest river system in North America.
• 1790 – French Revolution: Citizens of Paris celebrate the unity of the French people and the national reconciliation in the Fête de la Fédération.
• 1791 – The Priestley Riots drive Joseph Priestley, a supporter of the French Revolution, out of Birmingham, England.
• 1798 – The Sedition Act becomes law in the United States making it a federal crime to write, publish, or utter false or malicious statements about the United States government.
• 1853 – Opening of the first major US world's fair, the Exhibition of the Industry of All Nations in New York City.
• 1865 – First ascent of the Matterhorn by Edward Whymper and party, four of whom die on the descent.
• 1874 – The Chicago Fire of 1874 burns down 47 acres of the city, destroying 812 buildings, killing 20, and resulting in the fire insurance industry demanding municipal reforms from Chicago's city council.
• 1877 – The Great Railroad Strike of 1877 begins in Martinsburg, West Virginia, US, when Baltimore and Ohio Railroad workers have their wages cut for the second time in a year.
• 1881 – Billy the Kid is shot and killed by Pat Garrett outside Fort Sumner.
• 1900 – Armies of the Eight-Nation Alliance capture Tientsin during the Boxer Rebellion.
• 1902 – The Campanile in St. Mark's Square, Venice collapses, also demolishing the loggetta.
• 1911 – Harry Atwood, an exhibition pilot for the Wright Brothers lands his airplane at the South Lawn of the White House. He is later awarded a Gold medal from U.S. President William Howard Taft for this feat.
• 1916 – Start of the Battle of Delville Wood as an action within the Battle of the Somme, which was to last until 3 September 1916.
• 1928 – New Vietnam Revolutionary Party is founded in Huế amid providing some of the communist party's most important leaders in its early years.
• 1933 – Gleichschaltung: In Germany, all political parties are outlawed except the Nazi Party.
• 1933 – The Nazi eugenics begins with the proclamation of the Law for the Prevention of Hereditarily Diseased Offspring that calls for the compulsory sterilization of any citizen who suffers from alleged genetic disorders.
• 1943 – In Diamond, Missouri, the George Washington Carver National Monument becomes the first United States National Monument in honor of an African American.
• 1948 – Palmiro Togliatti, leader of the Italian Communist Party, is shot and wounded near the Italian Parliament.
• 1950 – Korean War: North Korean troops initiate the Battle of Taejon.
• 1957 – Rawya Ateya takes her seat in the National Assembly of Egypt, thereby becoming the first female parliamentarian in the Arab world.
• 1958 – Iraqi Revolution: In Iraq the monarchy is overthrown by popular forces led by Abdul Karim Kassem, who becomes the nation's new leader.
• 1960 – Jane Goodall arrives at the Gombe Stream Reserve in present-day Tanzania to begin her famous study of chimpanzees in the wild.
• 1965 – The Mariner 4 flyby of Mars takes the first close-up photos of another planet.
• 1969 – Football War: After Honduras loses a soccer match against El Salvador, riots break out in Honduras against Salvadoran migrant workers.
• 1969 – The United States $500, $1,000, $5,000 and $10,000 bills are officially withdrawn from circulation.
• 1976 – Capital punishment is abolished in Canada.
• 1987 – Montreal, Canada, is hit by a series of thunderstorms causing the Montreal Flood of 1987.
• 1992 – 386BSD is released by Lynne Jolitz and William Jolitz beginning the Open Source Operating System Revolution. Linus Torvalds releases his Linux soon afterwards.
• 2000 – A powerful solar flare, later named the Bastille Day event, causes a geomagnetic storm on Earth.
• 2002 – French President Jacques Chirac escapes an assassination attempt unscathed during Bastille Day celebrations.
• 2003 – In an effort to discredit U.S. Ambassador Joseph C. Wilson, who had written an article critical of the 2003 invasion of Iraq, Washington Post columnist Robert Novak reveals that Wilson's wife Valerie Plame is a CIA "operative".

Births[edit]

• 1454 – Poliziano, Italian poet and scholar (d. 1494)
• 1602 – Cardinal Mazarin, Italian-French politician, 2nd Chief Minister of the French Monarch (d. 1661)
• 1608 – George Goring, Lord Goring, English general (d. 1657)
• 1610 – Ferdinando II de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany (d. 1670)
• 1634 – Pasquier Quesnel, French theologian (d. 1719)
• 1671 – Jacques d'Allonville, French astronomer and mathematician (d. 1732)
• 1675 – Claude Alexandre de Bonneval, French general (d. 1747)
• 1676 – Caspar Abel, German historian, poet, and theologian (d. 1763)
• 1696 – William Oldys, English historian and author (d. 1761)
• 1721 – John Douglas, Scottish bishop (d. 1807)
• 1743 – Gavrila Derzhavin, Russian poet and politician (d. 1816)
• 1755 – Michel de Beaupuy, French general (d. 1796)
• 1785 – Mordecai Manuel Noah, American journalist and diplomat (d. 1851)
• 1801 – Johannes Peter Müller, German physiologist and anatomist (d. 1858)
• 1816 – Arthur de Gobineau, French author (d. 1882)
• 1829 – Edward Benson, English archbishop (d. 1896)
• 1859 – Willy Hess, German violinist and educator (d. 1928)
• 1860 – Owen Wister, American lawyer and author (d. 1938)
• 1861 – Kate M. Gordon, American suffragette (d. 1931)
• 1862 – Gustav Klimt, Austrian painter and graphic artist (d. 1918)
• 1865 – Arthur Capper, American journalist and politician, 20th Governor of Kansas (d. 1951)
• 1866 – Juliette Wytsman, Belgian painter (d. 1925)
• 1868 – Gertrude Bell, English archaeologist and spy (d. 1926)
• 1872 – Albert Marque, French sculptor and doll maker (d. 1939)
• 1874 – Abbas II of Egypt, Khedive ( Ottoman viceroy) of Egypt and Sudan (d. 1944)
• 1882 – Teddy Billington, American cyclist (d. 1966)
• 1885 – Sisavang Vong, Laos king (d. 1959)
• 1888 – Scipio Slataper, Italian author and critic (d. 1915)
• 1889 – Ante Pavelić, Croatian politician, 1st Foreign Minister of the Independent State of Croatia (d. 1959)
• 1890 – Ossip Zadkine, Russian sculptor (d. 1967)
• 1893 – Clarence J. Brown, American publisher and politician, 36th Lieutenant Governor of Ohio (d. 1965)
• 1893 – Garimella Satyanarayana, Indian poet (d. 1952)
• 1894 – Dave Fleischer, American animator, director, and producer (d. 1979)
• 1896 – Buenaventura Durruti, Spanish soldier and anarchist (d. 1936)
• 1898 – Happy Chandler, American lawyer and politician, 49th Governor of Kentucky (d. 1991)
• 1901 – Gerald Finzi, English composer (d. 1956)
• 1901 – George Tobias, American actor and singer (d. 1980)
• 1903 – Irving Stone, American author (d. 1989)
• 1906 – Olive Borden, American actress (d. 1947)
• 1906 – Tom Carvel, Greek-American businessman, founded Carvel (d. 1990)
• 1906 – William H. Tunner, American general (d. 1983)
• 1910 – William Hanna, American animator, director, producer, and actor, co-founded Hanna-Barbera (d. 2001)
• 1911 – Pavel Prudnikau, Belarusian poet and author (d. 2000)
• 1911 – Terry-Thomas, English actor and singer (d. 1990)
• 1912 – Northrop Frye, Canadian philosopher and critic (d. 1991)
• 1912 – Woody Guthrie, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (Almanac Singers) (d. 1967)
• 1913 – Gerald Ford, American commander, lawyer, and politician, 38th President of the United States (d. 2006)
• 1917 – George Bookasta, American actor and director (d. 2014)
• 1918 – Ingmar Bergman, Swedish director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2007)
• 1918 – Arthur Laurents, American director, screenwriter, and playwright (d. 2011)
• 1919 – Lino Ventura, Italian-French actor (d. 1987)
• 1920 – Shankarrao Chavan, Indian politician, Minister of Finance for India (d. 2004)
• 1921 – Sixto Durán Ballén, American-Ecuadorian politician, 48th President of Ecuador
• 1921 – Leon Garfield, English author (d. 1996)
• 1921 – Armand Gaudreault, Canadian ice hockey player (d. 2013)
• 1921 – Geoffrey Wilkinson, English chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1996)
• 1922 – Robert Creamer, American journalist (d. 2012)
• 1922 – Käbi Laretei, Estonian-Swedish pianist (d. 2014)
• 1922 – Robin Olds, American general and pilot (d. 2007)
• 1922 – Elfriede Rinkel, German SS officer
• 1923 – Dale Robertson, American actor and singer (d. 2013)
• 1923 – Willie Steele, American long jumper (d. 1989)
• 1925 – Jean-Louis Rosier, French racing driver (d. 2001)
• 1926 – Wallace Jones, American basketball player and coach (d. 2014)
• 1926 – Harry Dean Stanton, American actor and singer
• 1927 – John Chancellor, American journalist (d. 1996)
• 1928 – Nancy Olson, American actress
• 1930 – Polly Bergen, American actress and singer (d. 2014)
• 1931 – Jacqueline de Ribes, French fashion designer
• 1931 – E. V. Thompson, English police officer and author (d. 2012)
• 1932 – Princess Margarita of Baden (d. 2013)
• 1933 – Robert Bourassa, Canadian lawyer and politician, 22nd Premier of Quebec (d. 1996)
• 1933 – Franz, Duke of Bavaria
• 1936 – Pema Chödrön, American nun and author
• 1936 – Robert F. Overmyer, American colonel, pilot, and astronaut (d. 1996)
• 1937 – Teresa Lipowska, Polish actress
• 1937 – Yoshirō Mori, Japanese politician, 55th Prime Minister of Japan
• 1938 – Jerry Rubin, American activist, author, and businessman (d. 1994)
• 1938 – Tommy Vig, Hungarian vibraphone player, drummer, and composer
• 1939 – Karel Gott, Czech singer-songwriter and actor
• 1939 – Sid Haig, American actor
• 1940 – Susan Howatch, English author
• 1941 – Maulana Karenga, American philosopher, author, and activist, created Kwanzaa
• 1941 – Andreas Khol, German-Austrian politician
• 1942 – Javier Solana, Spanish physicist and politician, Spanish Minister of Foreign Affairs
• 1943 – Christopher Priest, English author
• 1945 – Jim Gordon, American drummer and songwriter (Traffic, Derek and the Dominos, Delaney & Bonnie, and Souther–Hillman–Furay Band)
• 1946 – Sue Lawley, English journalist
• 1946 – Manuel V. Pangilinan, Filipino businessman
• 1946 – Vincent Pastore, American actor
• 1946 – John Wood, Australian actor and screenwriter
• 1947 – Navin Ramgoolam, Mauritius politician, 3rd Prime Minister of Mauritius
• 1948 – Goodwill Zwelithini kaBhekuzulu, Zulu king
• 1949 – Tommy Mottola, American businessman
• 1949 – Jun Ross, Filipino basketball player (d. 2009)
• 1950 – Gwen Guthrie, American singer-songwriter (d. 1999)
• 1950 – Bruce Oldfield, English fashion designer
• 1951 – Erich Hallhuber, German actor (d. 2003)
• 1952 – Bob Casale, American musician (Devo) and sound engineer (d. 2014)
• 1952 – Franklin Graham, American evangelist and missionary
• 1952 – Eric Laneuville, American actor, director, and producer
• 1952 – Joel Silver, American actor and producer, co-founded Dark Castle Entertainment
• 1953 – Bebe Buell, American model and singer
• 1953 – Martha Coakley, American lawyer and politician, 58th Attorney General of Massachusetts
• 1954 – Jonathan D. G. Jones, Scientist
• 1955 – L. Brent Bozell III, American journalist and activist, founded the Media Research Center
• 1956 – Bob Birch, American musician (d. 2012)
• 1956 – Julio Chávez, Argentinian actor
• 1956 – Vladimir Kulich, American actor
• 1957 – Scot Breithaupt, American motorcycle racer (d. 2015)
• 1958 – Mircea Geoană, Romanian politician and diplomat, 97th Minister of Foreign Affairs for Romania
• 1958 – Anne Hegerty, British television personality
• 1960 – Anna Bligh, Australian politician, 37th Premier of Queensland
• 1960 – Kyle Gass, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and actor (Tenacious D and Trainwreck)
• 1960 – Angélique Kidjo, Beninese singer-songwriter and activist
• 1960 – Jane Lynch, American actress and singer
• 1960 – Mike McPhee, Canadian ice hockey player
• 1961 – Jackie Earle Haley, American actor
• 1962 – Vanessa Lawrence, English geographer
• 1962 – Jeff Olson, American drummer, songwriter, and radio host (Trouble, Retro Grave, and The Skull)
• 1962 – Antonio Díaz Sánchez, Cuban activist
• 1963 – Jacques Lacombe, Canadian organist and conductor
• 1963 – Phil Rosenthal, American journalist
• 1964 – Igor Shpilband, Soviet ice dancer and American figure skating coach
• 1965 – Urmas Kruuse, Estonian politician
• 1966 – Owen Coyle, Scottish-Irish footballer and manager
• 1966 – Tanya Donelly, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (Throwing Muses, Belly, and The Breeders)
• 1966 – Matthew Fox, American actor
• 1966 – Matt Hume American mixed martial artist and trainer
• 1966 – Ellen Reid, Canadian singer and pianist (Crash Test Dummies)
• 1966 – Brian Selznick, American author and illustrator
• 1967 – Marios Constantinou, Cypriot footballer and manager
• 1967 – Jeff Jarrett, American wrestler and promoter, co-founded Total Nonstop Action Wrestling
• 1967 – Robin Ventura, American baseball player and manager
• 1968 – Michael Palmer, Singaporean lawyer and politician, 8th Speaker of the Parliament of Singapore
• 1969 – José Hernández, Puerto Rican baseball player
• 1969 – Kazushi Sakuraba, Japanese mixed martial artist and wrestler
• 1969 – Sven Sester, Estonian politician
• 1969 – Craig Ricci Shaynak, American actor and producer
• 1970 – Nina Siemaszko, American actress
• 1971 – Mark LoMonaco, American wrestler
• 1971 – Ross Rebagliati, Canadian snowboarder
• 1971 – Madhu Sapre, Indian model and actress, Miss India 1992
• 1971 – Lukman Sardi, Indonesian actor
• 1971 – Joey Styles, American sportscaster
• 1971 – Marie-Chantal Toupin, Canadian singer
• 1971 – Howard Webb, English footballer and referee
• 1972 – Deborah Mailman, Australian actress
• 1973 – Tani Fuga, Samoan rugby player
• 1973 – Paul Methric, American rapper and producer (Twiztid, Dark Lotus, and Psychopathic Rydas)
• 1973 – Halil Mutlu, Turkish weightlifter
• 1973 – Candela Peña, Spanish actress
• 1973 – Adam Quinn, American bagpipes player and composer (Lucid Druid)
• 1974 – Erick Dampier, American basketball player
• 1974 – David Mitchell, English comedian, actor, and screenwriter
• 1974 – Pavlina Nola, Bulgarian tennis player
• 1975 – Taboo, American rapper and actor (The Black Eyed Peas)
• 1975 – Jamey Johnson, American singer-songwriter and guitarist
• 1976 – Monique Covét, Hungarian porn actress and model
• 1976 – Ranj Dhaliwal, Canadian author
• 1976 – Kirsten Sheridan, Irish director and screenwriter
• 1977 – Victoria, Crown Princess of Sweden
• 1977 – Gordon Cree, Scottish singer and musician
• 1978 – Mattias Ekström, Swedish race car driver
• 1979 – Bernie Castro, Dominican baseball player
• 1979 – Scott Porter, American actor and singer
• 1979 – Axel Teichmann, German skier
• 1980 – Chad Faust, Canadian-American actor, singer, director, and producer
• 1980 – Jed Madela, Filipino singer-songwriter
• 1981 – Milow, Belgian singer-songwriter
• 1981 – Yomi, Japanese vocalist (Nightmare)
• 1982 – Dmitry Chaplin, Russian-American dancer and choreographer
• 1982 – Achille Coser, Italian footballer
• 1982 – Ebuka Obi-Uchendu, Nigerian lawyer
• 1983 – Igor Andreev, Russian tennis player
• 1983 – Tito Muñoz, American conductor
• 1984 – Nilmar, Brazilian footballer
• 1984 – Renaldo Balkman, American basketball player
• 1984 – Lenka Dlhopolcová, Slovak tennis player
• 1984 – Mounir El Hamdaoui, Moroccan footballer
• 1984 – Samir Handanović, Slovenian footballer
• 1985 – Tuna, Albanian-Macedonian singer
• 1985 – Billy Celeski, Australian footballer
• 1985 – Lee Kwang-soo, South Korean actor
• 1985 – Darrelle Revis, American football player
• 1986 – Alexander Gerndt, Swedish footballer
• 1986 – Nikolai Kulemin, Russian ice hockey player
• 1986 – Dan Smith, English singer-songwriter (Bastille)
• 1987 – Aqeel Ahmed, English director, producer, and screenwriter
• 1987 – Sara Canning, Canadian actress
• 1987 – Margus Hunt, Estonian-American football player, discus thrower, and shot putter
• 1987 – Adam Johnson, English footballer
• 1987 – Dan Reynolds, American singer-songwriter (Imagine Dragons and Egyptian)
• 1987 – Ryan Sweeting, Bahamian-American tennis player
• 1987 – Patrick Switzer, Canadian skateboarder
• 1988 – Conor McGregor, Irish mixed martial artist
• 1988 – James Vaughan, English footballer
• 1989 – Sean Flynn, American actor
• 1991 – Shabazz Napier, American basketball player
• 1993 – Dovilė Dzindzaletaitė, Lithuanian triple jumper
• 1993 – Sayaka Yamamoto, Japanese idol and singer (NMB48 and AKB48)

Deaths[edit]

• 664 – Eorcenberht of Kent
• 1223 – Philip II of France (b. 1165)
• 1262 – Richard de Clare, 6th Earl of Gloucester, English soldier (b. 1222)
• 1575 – Richard Taverner, English translator (b. 1505)
• 1614 – Camillus de Lellis, Italian priest and saint (b. 1550)
• 1671 – Méric Casaubon, Swiss-English scholar (b. 1599)
• 1704 – Sophia Alekseyevna of Russia (b. 1657)
• 1723 – Claude Fleury, French historian (b. 1640)
• 1742 – Richard Bentley, English scholar and theologian (b. 1662)
• 1766 – František Maxmilián Kaňka, Czech architect (b. 1674)
• 1774 – James O'Hara, 2nd Baron Tyrawley, Irish field marshal (b. 1682)
• 1780 – Charles Batteux, French philosopher and academic (b. 1713)
• 1789 – Jacques de Flesselles, French politician (b. 1721)
• 1789 – Bernard-René de Launay, French politician (b. 1740)
• 1790 – Ernst Gideon von Laudon, Austrian field marshal (b. 1717)
• 1809 – Nicodemus the Hagiorite, Greek monk and saint (b. 1749)
• 1816 – Francisco de Miranda, Venezuelan general (b. 1750)
• 1817 – Germaine de Staël, French philosopher and author (b. 1766)
• 1827 – Augustin-Jean Fresnel, French physicist and engineer (b. 1788)
• 1834 – Edmond-Charles Genêt, French-American diplomat (b. 1763)
• 1850 – August Neander, German historian and theologian (b. 1789)
• 1856 – Edward Vernon Utterson, English lawyer and historian (b. 1775)
• 1876 – Major John Buckley VC, English recipient of the Victoria Cross (b. 1813)
• 1876 – Thomas Hazlehurst, English architect (b. 1816)
• 1881 – Billy the Kid, American criminal (b. 1859)
• 1904 – Paul Kruger, South African politician, 5th President of the South African Republic (b. 1824)
• 1907 – William Henry Perkin, English chemist (b. 1838)
• 1910 – Marius Petipa, French dancer and choreographer (b. 1818)
• 1917 – Octave Lapize, French cyclist (b. 1887)
• 1918 – Quentin Roosevelt, American lieutenant and pilot (b. 1897)
• 1924 – Isabella Ford, English activist (b. 1855)
• 1925 – Francisco Guilledo, Filipino boxer (b. 1901)
• 1936 – Dhan Gopal Mukerji, Indian-American author and scholar (b. 1890)
• 1939 – Alphonse Mucha, Czech painter (b. 1860)
• 1944 – Emil Fjellström, Swedish actor (b. 1884)
• 1954 – Jacinto Benavente, Spanish playwright, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1866)
• 1965 – Adlai Stevenson II, American politician, 5th United States Ambassador to the United Nations (b. 1900)
• 1966 – Julie Manet, French painter (b. 1878)
• 1967 – Tudor Arghezi, Romanian author and poet (b. 1880)
• 1968 – Konstantin Paustovsky, Russian author and poet (b. 1892)
• 1968 – Ilias Tsirimokos, Greek politician, 164th Prime Minister of Greece (b. 1907)
• 1970 – Preston Foster, American actor and singer (b. 1900)
• 1970 – Luis Mariano, Spanish tenor (b. 1914)
• 1973 – Ali Kılıç, A politician and militia officer of the Republic of Turkey (b. 1890)
• 1974 – Carl Andrew Spaatz, American general (b. 1891)
• 1975 – Madan Mohan, Iraqi-Indian composer (b. 1924)
• 1984 – Ernest Tidyman, American author and screenwriter (b. 1928)
• 1986 – Raymond Loewy, American industrial designer (b. 1893)
• 1990 – Walter Sedlmayr, German actor and director (b. 1926)
• 1993 – Léo Ferré, Monacan singer-songwriter, pianist, and poet (b. 1916)
• 1994 – César Tovar, Venezuelan baseball player (b. 1940)
• 1996 – Jeff Krosnoff, American race car driver (b. 1964)
• 1998 – Richard McDonald, American businessman, co-founded McDonald's (b. 1909)
• 2000 – Pepo, Chilean cartoonist (b. 1911)
• 2000 – Georges Maranda, Canadian baseball player (b. 1932)
• 2001 – Guy de Lussigny, French painter (b. 1929)
• 2002 – Joaquín Balaguer, Dominican lawyer and politician, 41st President of the Dominican Republic (b. 1906)
• 2002 – Fritz Glatz, Austrian race car driver (b. 1943)
• 2003 – François-Albert Angers, Canadian economist (b. 1909)
• 2003 – Éva Janikovszky, Hungarian author (b. 1926)
• 2004 – Nelly Borgeaud, Swiss-French actress (b. 1931)
• 2005 – Joe Harnell, American pianist and composer (b. 1924)
• 2005 – Cicely Saunders, English nurse and physician (b. 1918)
• 2008 – Henki Kolstad, Norwegian actor (b. 1915)
• 2009 – Zbigniew Zapasiewicz, Polish actor (b. 1934)
• 2009 – Dallas McKennon, American actor and voice actor (b. 1919)
• 2010 – Charles Mackerras, Australian conductor (b. 1925)
• 2010 – Mădălina Manole, Romanian singer and actress (b. 1967)
• 2012 – Bohuslav Ceplecha, Czech racing driver (b. 1977)
• 2012 – Sixten Jernberg, Swedish skier (b. 1929)
• 2012 – Gianni Marzotto, Italian racing driver and entrepreneur (b. 1928)
• 2013 – Dennis Burkley, American actor (b. 1945)
• 2013 – Vladimir Mikhailovich Zakharov, Russian dancer and choreographer (b. 1946)
• 2014 – Alice Coachman, American high jumper (b. 1923)
• 2014 – Vange Leonel, Brazilian singer-songwriter and activist (b. 1963)
• 2014 – Tom Rolf, Swedish-American film editor (b. 1931)